VIKING AGE ICELAND
Literature: our great debt to Iceland
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How impoverished our knowledge of the Viking
world would be today if it were not for the great literary treasures of
Iceland. By contrast, little survives from other countries of that time period.
Almost all of what we know of Norse mythology, Viking navigation, law codes, everyday
life, etc. is preserved in the Eddas, sagas, and poetry of Iceland.
It may seem strange that a remote island, just
south of the Arctic Circle, should be the repository of such literary riches.
Yet the country’s very isolation, in great part, contributed to the profusion
of its poetry and prose.
Being far from their native soils, Icelanders
were keenly interested in their past, traditions, and in their rugged forbearers
who first colonized the land. They preserved their ancestors’ memories and the
stories of old in verse, sharing the tales during the long winter nights.
For nearly six months of the year, icebergs
prevented anyone from leaving the island.
Winter brought deep snows and near
constant darkness. With so many hours spent indoors, plus the necessity to
offer hospitality to guests, entertainment became an important part of the
Icelanders’ lives — especially in the form of storytelling.
Theirs was an oral tradition. The old tales
and legends were recited in skaldic verse which utilized formal meters and
highly-wrought, complex language. This
included “kennings” which employed clever and elaborate metaphors. In the 9th
and 10th century, the skalds of Iceland achieved wide renown and
were sought for the royal courts, particularly those of Norway and Denmark.
In the year 1000 the Althing voted to adopt Christianity as the state religion. King
Olaf of Norway, who had, himself, embraced Christianity, threatened to cut off
trade with Iceland if it did not likewise adopt the religion. Iceland’s
survival depended upon trade with Norway, so a middle ground was sought. After
deep consideration, the Law-speaker decided that Iceland would adopt
Christianity publicly, but in their homes, people could worship as they wished.
This compromise led to a peaceful transition. As Christianity was accepted, the
populace continued to value and to preserve the stories of its pagan heritage.
Christianity brought with it the Latin system
of writing, making it possible to record works of great length onto vellum. (The
Vikings’ angular runic alphabet was used to carve inscriptions in wood, stone
and metal. It was ill-suited for capturing long passages of verse and prose.)
The transition from oral recitation to
writing did not happen immediately. However, when the Icelanders did begin to
put quill and ink to parchment (11th – 12th c), they
wrote in the vernacular (Old Norse) rather than in Latin. Remarkably, Íslensk has changed little from how it
was spoken the 9th c. With some effort, the ancient Eddas and sagas
can still be read by Icelandic school children today.
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| Snorri Sturluson – Christian Krohg - public domain |
Iceland’s main body of literature was
produced between 13th – 15th centuries and is extensive.
Snorri Sturluson, an influential goði,
poet and scholar writing in the 13th century, leaves us some of our
most important sources of the Viking age, chief among them being the Poetic and Prose Eddas and the Heimskringla.
In part, these works are a compilation of poems based on the oral tradition of
the 9th – 11th centuries. They provide our greatest
source of knowledge of Norse mythology, plus legends of heroic warriors, and
instructions for skalds.
The
Poetic (Elder) Edda
recounts the Norse creation story and
Ragnarök (Völupsá -
Prophecy of the Seeress). It also contains Norse wisdom, rules of conduct,
runes, and charms (Hávamál - Sayings of Hár); and details how the god,
Heimdall, sired the three social classes of jarls, karls and thralls with
detailed descriptions of each class (Lay of Ríg). The Prose (Younger) Edda further expands upon Norse myths and lore
and includes what are essentially technical textbooks for skalds: the Skaldskaparmál and the Háttatal.
The Heimskringla is actually a
collection of sagas of the Norwegian kings.
Snorri’s composition follows accounts of the historical rulers over
several centuries. His “kings’ sagas” created a new literary form.
Additionally, the work also portrays the war between the gods of the Æsir and
Vanir.
Iceland is famous for its family sagas. These
relate tales handed down over time, portraying Icelanders who became embroiled
in deceptions and blood feuds. The sagas read like historical novels and part
of their popularity lay in the depictions of human relationships and
interactions. They also supply details of everyday life and those of navigation
methods and of the laws which are quoted.
But can such details, given in what many
consider fictional tales, be trusted for accuracy? There has been an ongoing
dispute around this question with opinions changing overtime. Currently a new
approach is being taken – paring the information given in the sagas with
archaeological findings. Overall, it can be said that the early Icelandic
audience, listening to the sagas (or reading them), knew the law and everyday
aspects of their lives, and, in many cases, were descendants of the people
portrayed in the sagas. Given that, it is also recognized that attributes and
deeds of the characters could be inflated or fictionalized.
Chief Collections of Norse Literature:
1)
Royal
Library of Copenhagen (Codices Regii)
2)
University
Library, Copenhagen (Codices Academici)
3)
University
Library at Uppsala (Codices Upsalienses)
4)
Royal
Library at Stockholm (Codices Holmiani)
5)
Wolfenbüttel,
Germany (vellum ms. containing Egils saga and Eyrbygya Saga)
Recommended
Reading: The works of Snorri
Sturluson:
The
Poetic Edda and Heimskringla are a collection of
poems and prose sagas recorded in Iceland, mid 13th century, by
Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241), one of the most powerful chieftains and learned
men of his time.
ThePoetic
Eddic, trans. Lee M. Hollander
v Völupsá
(Prophecy of the Seeress) Norse cosmogony and Ragnarök
v Hávamál
(Sayings of Hár) Norse wisdom, rules of conduct, runes, charms
v Lay
of Ríg: Tale of how the
god, Heimdall, sired the three social classes (jarls, karls & thralls) with
detailed descriptions of each class embedded in the tale.
Heimskringla,
trans. Lee M. Hollander (History of the Kings of Norway)
v Ynglingatal
(Enumeration of the Yngling Kings):
Contains genealogy of the Ynglings, plus additional information on the
war between the Æsir and Vanir.
Edda,
trans. Anthony Faulkes
v Gylfaginning (The
Deluding/Duping of Gylfi): Contains
amplification of Norse mythology. [“Northern mythology and cosmogony” LH
v Skaldskaparmál (the
Language of SkaldshipPoetry): Intended as a textbook for skalds; contains more
myths, lists of kennings (compressed metaphors)
v Háttatal “The
Enumeration of hætir (meters)” and
“technical aspects of skaldic art”
Highly recommended –
the extensive publications by Prof. Jesse Byock.
Visit his website for
a full listing of his books, articles and information on the Mosfell
Archaeological Project in Iceland
Not to be missed is his
fascinating article on a fornaldarsögur,
described as the “’poor cousins’ within the family of Old Icelandic literature
… often fantastic narrations that read very differently from the more sober and
worldly islendingasögur [family
sagas].”
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